Association of Geographic Distance and Hospital Characteristics With Use of Interhospital Transfer by Air: A Multicenter Retrospective Study.

OBJECTIVE: Interhospital transfer by air (IHTA) represents the majority of helicopter air ambulance transports in the United States, but the evaluation of what factors are associated with utilization has been limited. We aimed to assess the association of geographic distance and hospital characteristics (including patient volume) with the use of IHTA. METHODS: This was a multicenter, retrospective study of helicopter flight request data from 2018 provided by a convenience sample of 4 critical care transport medicine programs in 3 US census regions. Nonfederal referring hospitals located in the home state of the associated critical care transport medicine program and within 100 miles of the primary receiving facility in the region were included if complete data were available. We fit a Poisson principal component regression model incorporating geographic distance, the number of emergency department visits, the number of hospital discharges, case mix index, the number of intensive care unit beds, and the number of general beds and tested the association of the variables with helicopter emergency medical services utilization. RESULTS: A total of 106 referring hospitals were analyzed, 21 of which were hospitals identified as having a consistent request pattern. Using the hospitals with a consistent referral pattern, geographic distance had a significant positive association with flight request volume. Other variables, including emergency department visit volume, were not associated. Overall, the included variables offered poor explanatory power for the observed variation between referring facilities in the use of IHTA (r2 = 0.09). Predicted flights based on the principal component regression model for all referring hospitals suggested the majority of referring hospitals used multiple flight programs. CONCLUSION: Geographic distance is associated with the use of IHTA. Unexpectedly, most basic hospital characteristics are not associated with the use of IHTA, and the degree of variation between referring facilities that is explained by patient volume is limited. The evaluation of nonhospital factors, such as the density and availability of critical care or advanced life support ground emergency medical services resources, is needed.

Defining the Core Content for Transport Physician Training Programs.

In many parts of the world, emergency medical services (EMS) clinical care is traditionally delivered by different levels or types of EMS clinicians, such as emergency medical technicians and paramedics. In some areas, physicians are also included among the cadre of professionals administering EMS-based care. This is especially true in the interfacility transport (IFT) setting. Though there is significant overlap between the knowledge and skills necessary to safely and effectively provide care in the IFT and prehospital settings, the IFT care environment requires physicians to develop several additional competencies beyond those that are expected of traditional EMS clinicians. NAEMSP first published recommendations regarding what some of these competencies should be in 1983 and subsequently updated those recommendations in 2002. This document is an updated work, given the evolution of the field.

Lateral Canthotomy Task Trainer in an Educational Small Group for Flight Providers.

OBJECTIVE: Lateral canthotomy is a rare, emergent, vision-preserving procedure to treat orbital compartment syndrome. Using Ericsson's deliberate practice model, we aimed to develop a multimodal small group intervention including a modified low-fidelity task trainer to improve flight physician knowledge and technical competency for lateral canthotomy in the prehospital context. METHODS: Two cohorts of resident (postgraduate year 1) flight physicians received small group training during an all-day competency-based flight physician orientation. The first cohort completed self-report pre- and postintervention assessments. In the second cohort, examiners assessed pre- and postintervention performance. RESULTS: Comparing pre- and postintervention responses (N = 27), the mean agreement with the knowledge of indications increased from 3.7 to 4.8. The mean agreement regarding confidence in skills increased from 2.2 to 4.2 (P < .001). The majority of participants (20/27) indicated the trainer "definitely helped," whereas 7 of 27 residents indicated the trainer "somewhat helped" them to learn skills. Examiners assessed holistic learner performance (n = 13) as improved from a mean of 3.2 preintervention to 4.7 postintervention, with 11 of 13 learners demonstrating improvement (P < .005). CONCLUSION: We demonstrate the feasibility of a brief small group training combining multimodal didactics with a modified low-fidelity task trainer. Resident self-assessment and examiner assessment demonstrated improved procedural skill with lateral canthotomy.

Management of patients with impella devices or intra-aortic balloon pumps during helicopter air ambulance transport in observational data.

INTRODUCTION: Placement of percutaneous ventricular support devices such as an intraaortic balloon pump (IABP) or Abiomed Impella device can treat severe cardiogenic shock. Critical care transport medicine (CCTM) providers frequently manage patients supported by these devices during interfacility transfers, often using a helicopter air ambulance (HAA). An understanding of patient needs and management during transport is essential to informing crew configuration and training, and this study adds to the limited existing data on the HAA transport of this complex patient population. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of all HAA transports of patients with an IABP (n = 38) or Impella (n = 11) device at a single CCTM program from 2016 to 2020. We evaluated transport times and composite variables for the frequency of adverse events, condition changes requiring critical care evaluation, and critical care interventions. RESULTS: In this observational cohort, patients with an Impella device more frequently had an advanced airway and at least 1 vasopressor or inotrope active prior to transport. While flight times were similar, CCTM teams remained at referring facilities longer for patients with an Impella device (99 vs 68 minutes; p = 0.0097). Compared to patients with an IABP, patients with an Impella device more frequently had a condition change requiring critical care evaluation (100% vs 42%; p = 0.0005) and more frequently received critical care interventions (100% vs 53%; p = 0.0037). Adverse events were uncommon and did not differ for patients with an Impella device compared to an IABP (27% vs 11%; p = 0.178). CONCLUSION: Patients requiring mechanical circulatory support with IABP and Impella devices frequently require critical care management during transport. Clinicians should ensure the CCTM team has appropriate staffing, training, and resources to meet the critical care needs of these high acuity patients.

Statin Administration for ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction During Rotor Wing Transport.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of statin administration by a critical care transport medicine (CCTM) team during rotor wing transport for ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients to a percutaneous intervention-capable center. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study at a single CCTM program after an intervention focused on statin administration for ST-elevation myocardial infarction that included a formulary change and a single brief educational presentation to flight physicians. A comparison group of flight nurse practitioners underwent training after the study period and were used as a control. Two authors completed an independent chart review to collect data. Descriptive statistics and chi-square or Mann-Whitney U testing were used to compare groups. RESULTS: Statin administration (or documentation of statin administration before CCTM crew arrival or contraindication to statin administration) occurred during 15 of 19 (79%) transports staffed by trained providers and 3 of 18 (17%) transports staffed by untrained providers (P < .001 by chi-square test). Scene times were not significantly different between transports by trained and untrained providers. CONCLUSION: In summary, we demonstrate the feasibility and safety of a protocol for statin administration in the CCTM setting.

Impella in Transport: Physiology, Mechanics, Complications, and Transport Considerations.

Cardiogenic shock (CS) represents a spectrum of hemodynamic deficits in which the cardiac output is insufficient to provide adequate tissue perfusion. The Impella (Abiomed Inc, Danvers, MA) device, a contemporary percutaneous ventricular support, is most often indicated for classic, deteriorating, and extremis Society for Coronary Angiography and Intervention stages of CS, which describe CS that is not responsive to optimal medical management and conventional treatment measures. Impella devices are an evolving field of mechanical support that is used with increasing frequency. Critical care transport medicine crews are required to transport patient support by the Impella device with increasing frequency. It is important that critical care transport medicine crews are familiar with the Impella device and are able to troubleshoot complications that may arise in the transport environment. This article reviews many aspects of the Impella device critical to the transport of this complex patient population.

Selective Prehospital Advanced Resuscitative Care - Developing a Strategy to Prevent Prehospital Deaths From Noncompressible Torso Hemorrhage.

Hemorrhage, and particularly noncompressible torso hemorrhage remains a leading cause of potentially preventable prehospital death from trauma in the United States and globally. A subset of severely injured patients either die in the field or develop irreversible hemorrhagic shock before they can receive hospital definitive care, resulting in poor outcomes. The focus of this opinion paper is to delineate (a) the need for existing trauma systems to adapt so that potentially life-saving advanced resuscitation and truncal hemorrhage control interventions can be delivered closer to the point-of-injury in select patients, and (b) a possible mechanism through which some trauma systems can train and incorporate select prehospital advanced resuscitative care teams to deliver those interventions.

Predictors of Definitive Airway Sans Hypoxia/Hypotension on First Attempt (DASH-1A) Success in Traumatically Injured Patients Undergoing Prehospital Intubation.

Background: Prehospital intubation success is routinely treated as a dichotomous outcome based on an endotracheal tube passing through vocal cords regardless of number of attempts or occurrence of hypoxia, or hypotension, which are associated with worse outcomes. We explore patient, provider, and procedure-related variables associated with successful definitive airway sans hypoxia/hypotension on first attempt (DASH-1A) in traumatically injured subjects undergoing endotracheal intubation at the scene of injury by a helicopter EMS system.Methods: This single-center retrospective chart review included patients with traumatic injuries and at least one attempted intubation by helicopter EMS at the scene of injury. Demographic and clinical variables were tested for association with DASH-1A and overall first-attempt success using univariate comparisons and multivariable logistic regression to produce adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Purposeful backwards stepwise elimination was used to develop logistic regression models for outcomes. Initial inclusion of covariates in multivariable models was based on clinical judgement, known or suspected risk factors and confounders for intubation success, and univariate associations.Results: Of 419 subjects screened, 263 met inclusion criteria. Median age was 34 years and the majority of subjects were Caucasian (95%), male (76%), and suffered blunt trauma (90%). The endotracheal tube was successfully placed on the first attempt in 198 (75.3%) of patients, but only 142 (55.3%) had a successful DASH-1A, and overall, 246 (94%) had an endotracheal tube passed successfully before hospital arrival. Factors significantly associated with successful DASH-1A were no ground EMS intubation attempt prior to arrival [aOR 2.2 (CI 1.0-4.9)], lack of airway secretions/blood [1.9 (1.0-3.4)], Cormack-Lehane Score of I and II [12.3 (4.5-33.2) & 3.2 (1.2-9.1), respectively], and bougie use [5.4 (1.8-15.8)]. For endotracheal tube passing only, the following were significantly associated with first pass success: grade of view I and II [aORs 87.3 (CI 25.8-295.7) & 6.8 (2.3-19.5), respectively], lack of secretions/blood [4.9 (2.1-11.2), bougie use [7.8 (2.3-26.3)], direct laryngoscopy [5.1 (1.5-17.0)] and not using apneic oxygenation through a nasal cannula [2.5 (1.1-5.6)].Conclusion: In our helicopter EMS system, successful endotracheal intubation on the first attempt and without an episode of hypoxia was associated with no ground EMS intubation attempt prior to flight crew arrival, lack of airway secretions/blood, Cormack-Lehane Score, and bougie use.

Prehospital Tranexamic Acid Administration During Aeromedical Transport After Injury.

BACKGROUND: Tranexamic acid (TXA) has been shown to reduce mortality in the treatment of traumatic hemorrhage. This effect seems most profound when given early after injury. We hypothesized that extending a protocol for TXA administration into the prehospital aeromedical setting would improve outcomes while maintaining a similar safety profile to TXA dosed in the emergency department (ED). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified all trauma patients who received TXA during prehospital aeromedical transport or in the ED at our urban level I trauma center over an 18-mo period. These patients had been selected prospectively for TXA administration using a protocol that selected adult trauma patients with high-risk mechanism and concern for severe hemorrhage to receive TXA. Patient demographics, vital signs, lab values including thromboelastography, blood administration, mortality, and complications were reviewed retrospectively and analyzed. RESULTS: One hundred sixteen patients were identified (62 prehospital versus 54 ED). Prehospital TXA patients were more likely to have sustained blunt injury (76% prehospital versus 46% ED, P = 0.002). There were no differences between groups in injury severity score or initial vital signs. There were no differences in complication rates or mortality. Patients receiving TXA had higher rates of venous thromboembolic events (8.1% in prehospital and 18.5% in ED) than the overall trauma population (2.1%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Prehospital administration of TXA during aeromedical transport did not improve survival compared with ED administration. Treatment with TXA was associated with increased risk of venous thromboembolic events. Prehospital TXA protocols should be refined to identify patients with severe hemorrhagic shock or traumatic brain injury.

Reducing Door-in Door-out Intervals in Helicopter ST-segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction Interhospital Transfers.

BACKGROUND: Many health systems rely on helicopter EMS (HEMS) to transfer ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients for percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) to a hospital with a catheterization laboratory. Mortality rates increase with the time to reperfusion, so reducing delays is imperative. For interhospital STEMI transfers, the time spent in the initial hospital from arrival until departure (door-in to door-out interval or DIDO) should be minimized. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of a series of process improvements to reduce DIDO intervals for STEMI patients transferred via a hospital based HEMS program. METHODS: Changes made to the STEMI transfer protocol in March 2011 were: (a) allowing transferring facilities to request HEMS before identifying an accepting cardiologist or hospital, with one hospital serving as a default PCI center in the case of delays, (b) limiting continuous infusions to those absolutely necessary for the transfer flights and (c) training flight crews to minimize time at bedside. Trained dual abstractors conducted structured medical record reviews for all STEMI patients 18 years and older, transferred to a PCI facility by HEMS from March 2011 to December 2012. Discrepancies were adjudicated. We compared DIDO intervals to a historical control cohort from 2007. We used the Mann-Whitney U test to compare times, and calculated differences with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Of 244 patients identified, six were excluded due to incomplete data. The historical cohort included 179 cases. Mean age was 59 (SD 14) years, 81% were white and 66% male. There were no differences in patient characteristics or door to EKG times between the cohorts. Median door-in to door-out interval decreased from 83 minutes (IQR 43) to 68 minutes (IQR 31) (difference 15 minutes, 95% CI 8 to 21, P <.0001). EKG to HEMS request decreased 21 minutes (95% CI 17 to 25, P <.0001), and HEMS ground time decreased 3 minutes (95% CI 2 to 4, P <.0001). There was a 32% absolute increase in the proportion of patients with EKG to helicopter request interval <35 minutes (83% vs 51%, difference 32%, 95% CI 24% to 41%, P <.0001). CONCLUSION: HEMS-focused process improvements can significantly reduce the DIDO interval times for STEMI patients transferred for PCI.

Shorter times to packed red blood cell transfusion are associated with decreased risk of death in traumatically injured patients.

BACKGROUND: Hemorrhage is a leading cause of death in traumatically injured patients. Currently, the importance of earlier administration of packed red blood cells (pRBC) to improve outcomes is limited. We evaluated the association of earlier pRBC administration and mortality when compared with later transfusion initiation. METHODS: This single-center retrospective cohort study of trauma patients transported by a single helicopter service from the scene of injury to an urban academic trauma center included patients receiving at least one unit of pRBC within 24 hours of hospital arrival. The final cohort included patients transported to the trauma center between March 11, 2010, and October 30, 2013. The helicopter service carries two units of pRBC for protocol-driven prehospital transfusion. Logistic regression was used to model odds of death, and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. RESULTS: The 94 patients meeting inclusion criteria had a mean (SD) age of 43 (19) years; 87 (93%) of 94 were white, 66 (70%) of 94 were male, and 88(94%) of 94 sustained blunt force injuries. Median Injury Severity Score was 29 (range, 2-75), and 31 (33%) of 94 died within 30 days. Most patients [82/94 (87%)] received their first pRBC transfusion during transport or within one hour of arrival at the emergency department (ED). For the 82 patients receiving a first pRBC transfusion within one hour of ED arrival, each 10-minute increase in time to transfusion increased the odds of death [OR, 1.27 (95% CI, 1.01-1.62; p = 0.044)], controlling for TRISS. At 30 days, 29/82 (35%) patients who received a pRBC transfusion within one hour of ED arrival, and 2 (16%) of 12 patients who received delayed transfusion were deceased (difference, 19%; 95% CI, -5% to 42%). CONCLUSION: In this study, delays in time to pRBC administration of as short as 10 minutes were associated with increased odds of death for patients receiving ultra-early pRBC transfusion. Expedient prehospital and ED transfusion capabilities may improve outcomes after trauma. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic/care management study, level III.

Critical burn patient with an unknown neuromuscular disease: conclusion.

A 37-year-old man was severely burned while trying to fill a lighter with fuel while smoking. He sustained full-thickness (third-degree) burns over 60% to 70% of his body, including the oropharynx. A ground-based paramedic was unable to orotracheally intubate the patient after the administration of morphine and diazepam. The flight crew's assessment found an awake, alert man who was unable to speak because of his oral injuries. The Glasgow Coma Scale was estimated to be 10. In addition, the patient was wheelchair-bound from an undefined neuromuscular disease. The patient was successfully intubated by the flight team as in the following description.

High fidelity medical simulation in the difficult environment of a helicopter: feasibility, self-efficacy and cost.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed the feasibility, self-efficacy and cost of providing a high fidelity medical simulation experience in the difficult environment of an air ambulance helicopter. METHODS: Seven of 12 EM residents in their first postgraduate year participated in an EMS flight simulation as the flight physician. The simulation used the Laerdal SimMantrade mark to present a cardiac and a trauma case in an EMS helicopter while running at flight idle. Before and after the simulation, subjects completed visual analog scales and a semi-structured interview to measure their self-efficacy, i.e. comfort with their ability to treat patients in the helicopter, and recognition of obstacles to care in the helicopter environment. After all 12 residents had completed their first non-simulated flight as the flight physician; they were surveyed about self-assessed comfort and perceived value of the simulation. Continuous data were compared between pre- and post-simulation using a paired samples t-test, and between residents participating in the simulation and those who did not using an independent samples t-test. Categorical data were compared using Fisher's exact test. Cost data for the simulation experience were estimated by the investigators. RESULTS: The simulations functioned correctly 5 out of 7 times; suggesting some refinement is necessary. Cost data indicated a monetary cost of 440 dollars and a time cost of 22 hours of skilled instructor time. The simulation and non-simulation groups were similar in their demographics and pre-hospital experiences. The simulation did not improve residents' self-assessed comfort prior to their first flight (p > 0.234), but did improve understanding of the obstacles to patient care in the helicopter (p = 0.029). Every resident undertaking the simulation agreed it was educational and it should be included in their training. Qualitative data suggested residents would benefit from high fidelity simulation in other environments, including ground transport and for running codes in hospital. CONCLUSION: It is feasible to provide a high fidelity medical simulation experience in the difficult environment of the air ambulance helicopter, although further experience is necessary to eliminate practical problems. Simulation improves recognition of the challenges present and provides an important opportunity for training in challenging environments. However, use of simulation technology is expensive both in terms of monetary outlay and of personnel involvement. The benefits of this technology must be weighed against the cost for each institution.

Critical review and recommendations for nesiritide use in the emergency department.

Heart failure is a disease of epidemic proportions. Almost five million Americans suffer from heart failure and over 400,000 patients are newly diagnosed with heart failure each year. Indeed, heart failure is now the only cardiovascular disease that is increasing in incidence and prevalence. Costs related to heart failure are $18.8 billion per year and are steadily increasing. Although the outpatient management of these patients has seen substantial improvement in the last two decades, emergency department (ED) treatment of acute decompensated heart failure has remained largely unchanged since the late 1970s. Current ED therapy consists of diuretics, intravenous vasodilatators, and inotropes. Recently, the outcomes of several high-profile clinical trials evaluating intravenous nesiritide (human B-type natriuretic peptide) have suggested a benefit in select hospitalized patients. Such a therapy has potential to provide a therapeutic addition or alternative for emergency heart failure management. We discuss these trials' results, suggest their relationship to the ED population, and provide recommendations for appropriate ED use.